The unconditioned response UCR remained unaffected, as did limb placing, accuracy of striking at moving objects, grooming, running and walking. The results are discussed in the context of an earlier report by McCormick et al. Progress in Psychobiology and Physiological Psychology.
New York: Academic Press , pp. Identifiers journal ISSN : Authors Close. Assign yourself or invite other person as author. It allow to create list of users contirbution. Assignment does not change access privileges to resource content. Wrong email address. You're going to remove this assignment. There was a total of 6 CT scans for each of the limbs 3 in neutral, supinated and pronated positions of the control specimens; 3 in neutral, supinated and pronated positions of the plated specimens.
Following the scout scan in 3 of the limbs, the fourth most proximal screw did not engage the radial carpal bone. In those cases, either the screw was re-inserted, or the plate was repositioned on the bone until implant position was deemed to be adequate.
The radius, ulna and plate were segmented and three-dimensional 3D iso-surface models were created. The 3D bone models were saved as. In the control specimens, the neutral radius was used as the point of reference for motion of the ulna.
In the neutral plated specimens, the plate was used as the point of reference because the presence of the bone plate obscured the dorsal surface of the radius. Multiple fiducial points were identified on the radius and the plate and used as registration points for alignment of the images from the neutral, supinated and pronated scans Fig. The relative motion of the ulna in supination and pronation was determined using the neutral scan as the reference Fig.
Fiducial points that were to align the radius a in the control specimens and the plate b in the plated specimens are marked as red rectangles on the diagrams. On the radius, the landmarks included the most medial and lateral aspects of the radial head, with a distal marker used on the radial styloid and most proximal aspect of the dorsal tubercle.
On the plate, the points used were the heads and tips of the first and last screws. The radius was used as the point of reference in the control specimens a , and the plate in the plated specimens b.
This allowed for relative movement of the ulna to be measured between the neutral, supinated and pronated positions. In the images, the yellow ulna is in the neutral position; the green ulna in the pronated position and the red ulna in the supinated position. The CT scans of one specimen specimen 5 control , positioned in neutral, supinated and pronated positions were separately thresholded five times.
The radius and ulna bone models were imported into software Materialise 3Matic, vs Means, standard deviations and coefficient of variation were calculated from these data.
Data were imported into a commercial statistical analysis package Prism version 8. Management of feline carpal injuries: What are the options and when is arthrodesis indicated? J Feline Med Surg. Article Google Scholar. Dorso-medial antebrachiocarpal luxation with radio-ulna luxation in a domestic shorthair. Antebrachiocarpal luxation in a cat: a case report and anatomical study of the medial collateral ligament.
Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol. Mathis KR, Voss K. Partial carpal arthrodesis using a medially applied miniplate in three cats with carpometacarpal hyperextension injury. Carpal arthrodesis in cats: long term functional outcome. Vet Comp Ortho Traumatol. Simpson D, Goldsmid S. Pancarpal arthrodesis in a cat: a case report and an anatomical study. Medial radio-carpal arthrodesis in three cats with a 2. Carpal joint.
In: Feline orthopedic surgery and musculoskeletal disease. London: Saunders Elsevier; Google Scholar. St Louis Missouri: Elsevier Missouri; Pancarpal arthrodesis in the dog: a review of forty-five cases. Vet Surg. Fractures and other orthopaedic conditions of the carpus, metacarpus and phalanges.
Chapter Google Scholar. Healing of dorsal pancarpal arthrodesis in the dog. J Small Anim Pract. The biological valence of the motion in the radioulnar joints of the cat and dog. Anat Histol Embryol. Dual bone fixation: a biomechanical comparison of 3 implant constructs in a mid-diaphyseal fracture model of the feline radius and ulna. In vitro validation of a technique for assessment of canine and feline elbow joint collateral ligament integrity and description of a new method for collateral ligament prosthetic replacement.
Crouch JE. Plate 19; the skeleton of the forepaw, or Manus, and the Hindpaw or pes. In: Text-atlas of cat anatomy. Lea and Febiger; Kinematics of the feline antebrachiocarpal joint from supination to pronation. Elliott J, Slakey B. CT provides precise size assessment of implanted titanium alloy pedicle screws. Clin Orthop Relat Res. Johnson KA. A radiographic study of the effects of autologous cancellous bone grafts on bone healing after carpal arthrodesis in the dog. Vet Radiol. Brachium arm tensor fasciae antebrachii m.
Major regions of the thoracic limb include: scapular region, brachium arm , antebrachium forearm , and manus. These four regions are connected by three joints: shoulder, elbow and carpus human wrist or equine knee. Intrinsic muscles of the thoracic limb have both attachments on the limb and thus they move one part of the limb relative to another part in contrast to extrinsic muscle which move the limb relative to the trunk.
The dextrans are less sensitive as retrograde tracers in many pathways they label fewer cells than other tracers with a similar injection size , but often provide the most extensive labeling of dendrites.
The extent of dendritic labeling varies with the pathway e. Stereotaxic coordinates were used to target specific MG subdivisions.
Each syringe was dedicated to a single tracer or specific mixture. Fluorescent dextrans have proven to be superb anterograde tracers for labeling AC axons extending to subcortical sites in guinea pigs cochlear nucleus: Schofield and Coomes, a , b ; IC: Nakamoto et al. Two additional animals received injections of tracer into the AC for subsequent analysis with electron microscopy Table 1.
In all cases, tracer was deposited in a grid-like array 9—32 deposit sites centered on core auditory fields using the pseudosylvian sulcus as a surface landmark primary AC and the dorsocaudal field; see Wallace et al. Volumes of 0. The following day the cerebellum was removed and the cerebral cortex was separated from the brainstem and thalamus separating the tissue simplifies processing and minimizes the amount of immunochemical reagents needed for staining and, in relevant cases, for electron microscopy.
The brainstem was further trimmed with transverse cuts at the rostral end of the thalamus and posterior to the superior olive. One series of brainstem sections was split into rostral and caudal sets so that sections through the thalamus could be stained for cytochrome oxidase activity to identify MG subdivisions Anderson et al.
One or more additional series of sections were stained to identify putative GABAergic cells with antibodies to glutamic acid decarboxylase GAD Nakamoto et al. In some cases with cortical injections, synaptic sites were stained in one series of sections by treatment with antibodies to synapsin 1 Table 2 , a synaptic marker.
Specificity of the anti-synapsin 1 antibody was established by western blot Abcam. The marker was visualized with goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody conjugated to AlexaFluor Table 2. Stained sections were mounted on gelatin-coated slides, allowed to dry and coverslipped with DPX www. In animals that received cortical injections, sections through AC were examined to ensure that the tracer did not penetrate the underlying white matter or deeper brain structures.
All cases had extensive labeling of cells in the MG, confirming injection into the AC. Two animals that received tracer injections into the AC were processed for electron microscopy as described previously Nakamoto et al. Tracer was revealed with biotinylated antibodies to fluorescein or rhodamine Table 2 and streptavidin peroxidase, which was then used to precipitate diaminobenzidine DAB.
Some of the reacted sections were mounted on glass slides, counterstained for Nissl substance, and covered for light microscopic examination. These sheets were examined in a light microscope and areas of the NBIC that contained labeled axons were trimmed out and mounted on a blank resin block. Ultrathin sections silver-gold interference were cut with a Leica UC6 ultramicrotome, collected on mesh nickel grids and stained with antibodies to GABA to reveal GABAergic neurons described in detail in Coomes et al.
Briefly, grids holding thin sections were placed on rabbit anti-GABA antibodies Table 2 overnight, then marked with secondary antibodies linked to 15 nm gold particles Table 2. Cytoarchitecture and injection sites. The location and extent of each MG injection site was determined by comparison of the tracer deposit with borders of MG subdivisions identified in sections stained for cytochrome oxidase Anderson et al.
Injections into the cortex were examined to confirm that they were located in the AC i. Wallace et al. Immunopositive cells were labeled intensely and were readily distinguished from immunonegative cells.
GAD-negative staining in the retrogradely labeled cells. Results from 8 injections 3 large and 5 small that had robust immunostaining were used for quantitative analysis. For each case, every labeled cell was plotted in an evenly spaced series of sections usually every sixth section through the NBIC ipsilateral to the tracer deposit.
In some cases, the anti-GAD staining did not fully penetrate the tissue, resulting in a central layer in the section where GAD staining was absent. This approach provides sufficient resolution in the z plane section depth to allow filtering of the data by depth. After the data were plotted, the X, Y, and Z coordinates of all markers from each subdivision of each tissue section were exported from Neurolucida to Microsoft Excel and sorted based on the Z coordinate.
This yielded 2 zones of data from each section 1 associated with each surface , and a central zone that was stained poorly or not at all with GAD. All markers in the central zone were excluded from further analyses. In order to assess the relationship of cortical synapses to NBIC cells in our light microscopic experiments, we examine tracer-labeled cortical boutons in tissue stained with antibodies to the presynaptic synaptic marker synapsin 1.
We counted double-labeled boutons across the NBIC in two sagittal sections, thus including samples from a wide rostro-caudal and medio-lateral expanse of the NBIC. In addition, analysis was limited to a region near the surface of the section where synapsin staining was robust. Our goal was to assess the proportion of likely cortical synapses that were associated with NBIC somas vs.
By selecting only double-labeled boutons, we avoided false negative staining that could have arisen from incomplete penetration of the anti-synapsin immunochemicals. Given these constraints, all double-labeled boutons in the stained zone near the top surface of each tissue section were counted.
This yielded boutons. High resolution imaging of fluorescent structures was accomplished with structured illumination microscopy Apotome 2 system on a Zeiss AxioImager Z2 www.
Most often, optical sections were collected at a spacing of 0. Ultrastructure was analyzed with two electron microscopes EM. Synapses were identified by the presence of vesicles in the presynaptic profile, a clear synaptic cleft and the presence of a postsynaptic density. Tracer-labeled profiles were readily identified by the presence of DAB precipitate.
Final images were produced by selecting the relevant optical sections from the stack and creating a maximum projection image Neurolucida Electron micrographs were assembled from the digital files. For both light and electron micrographs, Adobe Photoshop Version CS3 or CS6, Adobe Systems was used to add labels, crop images, erase background around tissue sections and to colorize monochrome images. Contrast levels were adjusted globally by adjusting levels or curves. The NBIC in guinea pigs was identified by comparison with descriptions in cats, ferrets and rats Kudo et al.
The rostral borders were particularly enhanced by the anti-GAD staining. This injection included parts of all 4 major subdivisions ventral, dorsal, medial, and suprageniculate as well as the MG shell. We conclude that the injection did not encroach directly on the NBIC.
Retrogradely labeled cells were very numerous in many regions, including the ipsilateral and contralateral IC and many subcollicular auditory nuclei previously described as sources of input to the MG Anderson et al. The following description is limited to label in the NBIC. As described above, the NBIC consists of a concentration of cells located medial to the main bundle of inferior brachium fibers and cells located among these fibers. Following tracer injections in the MG, labeled cells were quite numerous within the large nuclear region and scattered in smaller numbers within the fiber tract.
The majority of labeled cells in the NBIC were located ipsilateral to the injection site, although a few labeled cells were present contralaterally. Figure 1. Photomicrographs of a representative large injection site A—D and 4 small injection sites E—H in the medial geniculate nucleus MG. Sections are arranged from caudal to rostral.
Additional green fluorescence is seen around the margins of a blood vessel along the dorsomedial border of the ventral MG v ; this represents spread of beads that does not result in retrogradely labeled cells.
This injection was into the right MG; the image has been reversed left to right to facilitate comparisons with the other small injections. H Small injection of red beads into the suprageniculate MG sg. Transverse sections; dorsal is up; lateral is to the left in A—D , and to the right in E—H. Panels A—D were previously published in Mellott et al.
The two cell types were intermingled, with no obvious relationship to the location of the injection site within the MG. Such a result suggests that the immunonegative cell was in fact non-GABAergic, and not unlabeled because of incomplete immunostaining. Labeled cells were located throughout the rostro-caudal length of the NBIC, extending from the caudal end of the nucleus where it abuts the lateral cortex of the IC to the rostral end at the level of the MG.
The majority of cells, however, were concentrated between these two extremes, i. Figure 2. For each panel, the upper image shows cells labeled with FG and the lower image shows the same region visualized for GAD immunoreactivity.
In both panels, nearby cells were robustly labeled for GAD blue cells. Figure 3. Plots showing the distribution of labeled cells in transverse sections through the right nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus NBIC after a large injection of Fast Blue FB into the right MG. Each symbol represents one retrogradely-labeled cell. See list for abbreviations. Analysis of results from 7 experiments with small injections support this latter interpretation. Table 3. The deposits typically spanned multiple cortical layers, including layers V and VI, but did not extend below layer VI into the white matter.
We conclude that the injection sites labeled corticofugal axons originating from multiple subdivisions of the AC, including primary AC A1 and across cases varying amounts of the surrounding auditory areas. Labeled axons and boutons were present in large numbers in numerous subcortical nuclei, including the ipsilateral MG, ipsilateral and contralateral IC and other brainstem nuclei as described in previous studies e.
The present report focuses on labeled axons in the NBIC. Figure 4. Photomicrographs showing representative results after an injection of FluoroRuby FR into the left auditory cortex. A Transverse section showing part of a large deposit of FR into the left auditory cortex. The deposit site bright red area was confined to the cortical layers indicated by Roman numerals ; FR-labeled axons between white arrows are seen extending into the subcortical white matter wm.
Dorsal is up; lateral is to the left. B FR-labeled axons in the nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus NBIC after the injection shown in panel A labeled axons as well as many boutons are visible.
Sagittal section. Structured illumination image stack; maximum projection image. C,D Structured illumination fluorescence images showing FR-labeled boutons red in the NBIC that are also immunoreactive for the synaptic marker synapsin 1 imaged with AlexaFluor and colorized cyan. Each row shows a single area visualized for FR all panels , synapsin 1 cyan, middle and right panels and Neurotrace a Nissl stain, colorized green, right panel.
Many swellings on the FR-labeled axons were immunopositive for synapsin 1; some of these were closely apposed to labeled somas white arrowheads , whereas other synapsin 1-positive, FR labeled boutons were located in the neuropil yellow arrowheads , between Nissl-stained cells presumably forming synapses with unlabeled dendrites. Sagittal sections. On the side ipsilateral to the cortical injection, the brachium of the IC i.
Many of the axons labeled in the ipsilateral NBIC presumably continue on to the IC, one of the most prominent targets of corticofugal projections.
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